Gaudeamus Academic Journal, Universidad Latina
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International trade of hazardous and other wastes within the socio-environmental boundaries of developing countries.
In an interconnected world where socio-environmental boundaries no longer merely divide territories but also define resource flows and ecological challenges, addressing international trade and the transboundary management of hazardous waste has become essential. Ochoa and Llanos (2020) note that socio-environmental boundaries serve as an epistemological tool for analyzing territories from an environmental perspective, emphasizing that degradation varies across contexts. Within this framework, the United Nations Environment Programme and the Basel Convention (adopted in 1989, in force since 1992) stand as key milestones by establishing an international legal framework to regulate the generation, transport, and disposal of hazardous wastes, prioritizing the prevention of their transfer to developing countries. Nevertheless, major challenges persist due to conflicting economic interests, differing regulations, and unequal enforcement capacities among nations. Consequently, managing hazardous waste within socio-environmental borders is vital to understanding these tensions and fostering more equitable and effective international cooperation for environmental protection.
International Agreement, Environmental Policy, Socio-Environmental Borders, Hazardous Waste, Transboundary Movements.
Book Review: New Dimensions of Connectivity in the Asia-Pacific.
The document, edited by Christopher Findlay and Somkiat Tangkitvanich, provides a comprehensive analysis of the new dimensions of connectivity in the Asia-Pacific region. It addresses the complex interaction between physical infrastructure, the development of the digital economy, and efforts toward regional economic integration. Through an interdisciplinary approach, the editors examine the multifaceted effects of increasing connectivity on trade, investment, and economic growth within the region
Asia-Pacific / Neocolonialism / Geopolitics / Cooperation
Analysis of the Book: The Maritime Rise of Eurasia and Global Security: From the Indian Ocean to the Arctic
The book Eurasia’s Maritime Rise and Global Security: From the Indian Ocean to Pacific Asia and the Arctic, edited by Geoffrey F. Gresh, examines the geopolitical, economic, and environmental challenges shaping contemporary maritime security in Eurasia. By studying strategic chokepoints, piracy, China’s naval expansion, and regional cooperation (Indo -Japanese and US-Asia), the work shows how control of sea routes and access to energy resources influence global stability. It also addresses cybersecurity, territorial disputes in the South China Sea, and the opening of the Arctic, highlighting environmental and geopolitical risks from climate change. The book concludes that the current maritime dynamics reflect a delicate balance between cooperation and competition, where the ability of states and private actors to adapt to strategic, climatic, and technological challenges determines the future of global trade and international security. This analysis provides insights into how the oceans have become a central arena for power competition, showing the interdependence between geopolitical, economic, and environmental factors in shaping the 21st-century maritime order.
Piracy, maritime security, geopolitics, international trade, Eurasia
Practical guide for Conducting Environmental Impact Studies in the Field of International Relations.
This article presents a methodological guide for conducting environmental impact studies in the context of International Relations. It addresses the main types of environmental studies, environmental monitoring, biodiversity studies, pollution, climate change and socio-environmental analysis. The guide provides a basic structure for students to develop rigorous research, promoting environmental awareness, environmental diplomacy and the integration of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) into international analysis. It emphasises the importance of interdisciplinary training to tackle global challenges from an ethical, critical and collaborative perspective.
Environmental Impact Assessment, International Relations, Environmental Diplomacy, Susteinable Development.
Value Chains in Strengthening MSMEs and Territorial Development in Costa Rica
This article examines the role of value chains in strengthening micro, small and mediumsized enterprises (MSMEs) and promoting territorial development in Costa Rica. Using a qualitative and exploratory approach, it reviews key methodological frameworks, the national MSME landscape, critical factors affecting value chain integration, and lessons learned from territorial experiences. The study identifies structural challenges such as organizational fragmentation, territorial inequality, informality, and weak institutional coordination. At the same time, it highlights opportunities related to the valorization of identity-based products, public-private collaboration, and the use of participatory methodologies. The article concludes that strengthening value chains requires a systemic vision that is territorially grounded and focused on inclusion, sustainability, and shared responsibility among stakeholders.
Value chains, MSMEs, territorial development, productive inclusion, participatory methodologies, Costa Rica.
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: Prevention and Awareness in Youth for a Healthy Future
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) includes a group of progressive lung conditions that make breathing difficult and severely reduce the quality of life of those affected. The main forms of COPD, such as chronic bronchitis and emphysema, destroy lung tissue and create a chronic inflammatory process that can also affect other organs and body systems, complicating the condition. COPD is a degenerative disease with a high global impact, causing significant costs for patients, their families, and healthcare systems, and it is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality. Prevention is essential, particularly by reducing tobacco use and exposure to environmental pollutants. Early diagnosis and comprehensive treatment are key to helping patients manage the disease. This study focuses on understanding how COPD works, its symptoms, risk factors, diagnosis, and treatment. It also analyzes the knowledge, perceptions, and beliefs about the disease, especially among young people in Costa Rica. Special attention is given to the use of electronic cigarettes and their possible link to COPD development. Understanding these factors can help create more effective educational and preventive strategies, fill knowledge gaps, promote healthy lifestyles, and contribute to preventing this debilitating disease. The study aims to raise awareness among youth about the importance of prevention and to encourage habits that reduce the risk of developing COPD in the future.
¿To what extent have English teachers' communication skills influenced the development of secondary school students' speaking and listening competencies in Costa Rica over 2024-2025?
This study analyzes the transversal role of communication skills among English teachers at the secondary education level in Costa Rica, as the development of students’ oral, auditory, and written competencies has been diminished. Through continuous education, this research highlights the impact of teacher training alongside students’ commitment to acquiring greater knowledge of the language. The purpose of this article is to establish the extent to which communicative ability is connected to the academic and professional training of teachers, as well as the influence of assertive communication on the institutional structure of high schools. It is also important to consider communication barriers, particularly those related to language, which hinder evaluation processes. Another aspect addressed is students’ performance when applying the language in more practical contexts. The research adopted a mixed-methods approach to gather perceptions that enabled an in-depth analysis of key dimensions, supported by a descriptive methodological design. The results reveal that clarity, empathy, and feedback provided by English teachers are decisive factors in the improvement of students’ oral, written, and auditory performance. Likewise, teachers who implement dynamic and interactive strategies achieve outstanding levels of student motivation and participation. The findings underscore the need to strengthen teachers’ pedagogical training, particularly in communication skills, and to design and implement training programs aimed at improving peer interaction. Finally, the study highlights the relevance of establishing teacher communication as a central axis in the English teaching–learning process in Costa Rican secondary education.
Habilidades de comunicación, docentes de inglés, competencias orales, auditivas y escritas, educación secundaria, estrategias pedagógicas, retroalimentación, motivación estudiantil, interacción en el aula, capacitación docente
Costa Rica and the Central American integration project under a critical lens: tensions, miscalculations and democratic regression in multipolarity.
The process of Central American integration seeks to balance development, democracy and peace, but a gap remains between economic cooperation and the political and jurisdictional articulation. The institutional architecture shows overlapping functions and weak coordination, which limits the efficacy and erodes the social legitimacy of the project. Even still, benefits in intraregional and interregional commerce, technical cooperation and political dialogue can be observed, which justifies keeping and boosting integration under efficiency criteria, accountability and citizen participation, especially in the face of democratic setbacks and international challenges. These tensions are located in a multipolar international setting, where the distribution of power and strategic volatility increase the costs of unilateral action for small and medium-sized countries. In this context, integration is not only desirable, but necessary, as a strategy for integration and resilience, as it guarantees joint bargaining power and coordination in the face of external shocks. The paradox of Costa Rican integration, with its pragmatic economic interests and distance from political and judicial bodies of integration, illustrates the dilemma between internal autonomy and regional influence, and highlights many of the problems with the integration process in general. Finally, the argument is made for operationalizing integration in terms of cooperative security through the formation of a regional defense bloc linked to the SICA, as a tool for negotiation and deterrence in the face of external pressures, and to avoid the recurrence of cycles of instability.
Between National Disinterest and External Commitment: International Cooperation and Projects Against Hate Speech Toward LGBTIQ+ People in Costa Rica
The article examines how hate speech directed at LGBTIQ+ individuals is not meaningfully addressed through international cooperation in Costa Rica, even though this issue is included in the country’s international cooperation agenda. It outlines the structure of international cooperation in Costa Rica, noting that cooperation priorities are intrinsically linked to the government in power. From this analysis, a suggestion emerges on how to address these issues through international cooperation from public institutions in Costa Rica.
Under the Veil of Discrimination: Challenges of Modern Apartheid
Apartheid in South Africa, a system of racial segregation officially instituted in 1948, was based on the belief in the superiority of the white race over others. Discriminatory policies imposed by the white minority subjugated the black majority and other ethnic minorities, perpetuating structural inequalities and undermining human dignity. This system was rooted in imperialist ideologies and the master-slave theory, facilitating the submission of the people to an oppressive regime. Although apartheid officially ended in 1994, challenges of racism and discrimination continue to be faced in the modern era. The persistence of these injustices highlights the need for a continued commitment to social justice and equality.
Security at Any Cost: The Violation of Human Rights and the Use of Fear for the Consolidation of Power in El Salvador
This article analyzes the human rights situation in El Salvador focusing on the security policies implemented by the government of Nayib Bukele. It examines the evolution of the maras, their impact on violence and insecurity, as well as state responses, which have been characterized by a punitive and violent approach that has led to the consolidation of a state policy that systematically and pervasively violates human rights
"Heart of Darkness" (Joseph Conrad): A Critical Review for Its Reading from the Perspective of International Relations
This bibliographic review is presented to us by students of the International Relations Theory class. They carried out a detailed analysis of the work Heart of Darkness (1899), exploring it from different angles of International Relations. The review addresses critiques of imperialism and colonialism, as well as reflections on global inequality and the possibility of extrapolating readings to current realities. This review was prepared by the students; Kristel Alina Barrios Serrano, Michelle Corella Zúñiga; Nissy Duarte González, Marcela González Miranda, Nelson Eduardo Montero Fallas, Emmarie Obando Chávez, and Nicole Serrano Chanto. The students were guided by Daniel López Zúñiga, director of the International Relations program, who served as the compiler of the work.
Neglected Heritage: Legal Implications of the Colonial Chapel Cemetery in Costa Rica
Beneath the heart of San José, under stone and concrete, lie the fragmented traces of lives once lived and long forgotten. This study is more than a technical report on an archaeological rescue; it is an invitation to reflect on how a society chooses to remember; or erase its dead. The hurried 1993 excavation beneath the Catedral Metropolitana exposed not just bones, but the structural negligence, legal voids, and cultural failure that still echoes today. As Costa Rica grapples with the evolution of its heritage laws, this article urges readers to recognize that the past is not stuck in time, but rather demands something of us. How will we respond?
Historical Introduction to Myanmar and Its Civil War
In our Western latitudes, when we think about armed conflicts, genocides, or ethnic cleansings, our attention often turns to those wars that are highly mediated, such as the cases of Ukraine or Gaza. It is not that these wars lack importance they indeed have significant weight in global geopolitics but the coverage they receive often overshadows other conflicts and the struggles of other peoples who also deserve to be made visible. In this case, we will focus on Myanmar, a country that since 1948 has endured a violent civil war that, in many respects, has become a way of life. In fact, it is currently the longest-running civil war in the world. In this article, we will not only delve into the history since 1948 but will also go back many centuries to understand how the first civilizations in Myanmar emerged and their context, in order to provide a more complete view of the history of this country.
What We Have and What We Lack: Female Genital Mutilation on the Path to Its Eradication by 2030
Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) is an endemic practice in various latitudes of the world that violates the sexual and reproductive rights, as well as the human rights of millions of women in the world under the excuse of culture or tradition. It was eleven years ago when the United Nations Organization designated February 6 as the International Day of Zero Tolerance for Female Genital Mutilation, setting the goal of eradicating it by 2030, however, a few years from that objective, more than 4.3 million girls are at risk of undergoing this procedure each year. The COVID-19 pandemic, the increase in poverty and inequality, the problems in education in addition to the deficient efforts of the government and the international community are some of the factors that affect this practice and that are analyzed throughout this writing.
Relationship Between FoMO (Fear of Missing Out) and the Use of Social Media Among People Aged 18 to 35 in the Greater Metropolitan Area of Costa Rica During the Second Semester of 2025
The Fear of Missing Out (FoMO), defined as the anxiety of potentially missing social experiences, has become increasingly relevant in recent years due to intensive social media use. Recent studies link it to loneliness, depression, and the need for belonging, effects amplified by the immediacy of digital information and algorithms that prioritize emotionally charged content. Platforms such as TikTok, Instagram, and Facebook influence reality perception, encouraging social comparison and feelings of exclusion. The combination of FoMO and constant social media use creates a feedback cycle that reinforces digital dependency and worsens emotional consequences. International research highlights how this phenomenon was shaped by the COVID-19 pandemic, initially reducing FoMO during lockdowns, but later increasing the pressure to remain connected and informed. In Costa Rica, particularly in the Greater Metropolitan Area, constant internet access exposes young people aged 18 to 35 to idealized lifestyles, travel experiences, and achievements, intensifying personal dissatisfaction and comparison. Despite abundant international evidence, there is limited local research on how FoMO and social media use affect this age group—a stage critical for identity formation and interpersonal relationships. This context underscores the need to examine FoMO’s impact on mental health and social life among Costa Rican youth, leading to the research question: What is the relationship between FoMO and social media use in the Greater Metropolitan Area during the second semester of 2025?
The United Nations Model as a Guarantee to Promote Change
On July 21 and 22, 2025, the United Nations Model for the second academic term was held at Universidad Latina de Costa Rica. This event serves as a valuable tool for students interested in diplomacy and constructive debate, as it promotes dialogue, the search for collective solutions, and exposure to diverse perspectives. Beyond its academic value, it helps participants develop skills such as publicspeaking, negotiation, and teamwork. This leads to key questions: how did these models originate? How did they arrive in Latin America? How do they work? And why are they so important today?
Digitalization of International Trade: The Role of Smart Customs and Blockchain Technology
This study analyzes how the digitalization of international trade, through technologies such as smart customs and blockchain, is transforming logistics processes, transparency, and efficiency in cross-border trade. Based on a qualitative review of academic literature, technical reports, and case studies, the research examines the advantages, limitations, and necessary conditions for effective implementation, with a focus on developing countries such as Costa Rica. The findings indicate that smart customs significantly reduce clearance times, automate procedures, and foster interagency coordination. Meanwhile, blockchain enhances traceability, document security, and trust among trade actors, especially when combined with smart contracts. Nonetheless, developing countries face challenges related to technological infrastructure, the availability of specialized human talent, and the lack of appropriate regulatory frameworks. While Costa Rica has made significant progress, its experience highlights the need for an integrated approach that aligns technical capabilities, public policy, and institutional innovation. The study concludes that these technologies hold great transformative potential, but their sustainable adoption will depend on the development of national strategies that address existing structural barriers.
he WTO Appellate Body crisis: causes, consequences, and prospects for reform.
The paralysis of the WTO Appellate Body is not a mere administrative issue, but an institutional crisis that reshapes the rules of global trade and poses a serious risk to the organization’s credibility. The dispute settlement system has been weakened since December 2019, when the appointment of judges was blocked, rendering the body inoperative. As a result, many countries have turned to unilateralism, the adoption of questionable trade policies, and the escalation of tensions among major powers such as China, the United States, and the European Union. Although the MPIA (Multi-Party Interim Appeal Arbitration Arrangement) and other alternative mechanisms provide a temporary solution and preserve arbitral functions among some members, they cannot replace the global legitimacy of the Appellate Body. This crisis, far from being circumstantial, exposes the fragility of multilateralism and underscores the urgent need for comprehensive reform of the WTO to adapt to the challenges of the 21st century, including the rise of new economic powers, digitalization, and sustainability.
Trade Between Costa Rica and Africa: A Reality Without Free Trade Agreements?
Since the 1990s, Costa Rica began a process of insertion into the world economy through the promotion of exports. This has led to the negotiation and signing of multiple free trade agreements with countries of the American continent, but also outside of it. Despite the commercial dynamism of Costa Rica's exports and imports -to this date- no commercial agreement has been announced, negotiated or signed with any country on the African continent. In this sense, it is valid to think that our country has no interest in the commercial opportunities that arise with multiple African countries, however, market studies and the same annual statistics reveal another reality.
Current Applications of Artificial Intelligence in Law: A Review of the Present and Future Perspectives
Artificial intelligence (AI) has emerged as one of the most debated technologies of our time, transforming numerous fields ranging from medicine and engineering to the social sciences. In the legal field, AI has begun to open new possibilities by automating processes, optimizing data management, and providing advanced tools. However, this technological revolution raises fundamental questions about how to integrate these innovations into a legal system traditionally designed to be interpreted and applied by human beings, and whether their use within it is truly feasible.
ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE: SOME CASES AGAINST HUMAN RIGHTS
An epistemological analysis of the cases of administration of justice and some specific cases against human rights.
Space Diplomacy as a scientific pillar for human evolution, progress, and environmental protection.
When people talk about space diplomacy, we often think of something futuristic and unlikely to be feasible in the 21st century. But what if space diplomacy exists in every single action of everyday life? This is not only the answer to environmental protection, but also the answer to the progress and preservation of the human race. We are facing the most important era to understand our power and how we can change the world.
The academic journal Gaudeamus is pleased to announce that we are back and will begin publishing more regularly. In addition, new changes and updates are on the way, introduced by the current student administration of the journal. This volume represents the culmination of the efforts of several students and professors who kindly submitted their articles for publication. We invite everyone to read this introduction to gain a clearer understanding of the topics covered in this edition. We are also pleased to announces the participation of Psychology students who submitted one of their research studies for this volume.
A Self-Analysis of the Seven Benefits that the Implementation of Artificial Intelligence (AI) Brings to the English Language Teaching Process
This essay examines the seven essential benefits that the implementation of Artificial Intelligence (AI) brings in the English language teaching process. This paper includes both research processes and personal teaching experiences in the ELF teaching context. In fact, AI is represented as a transformational tool that is used to change the traditional methods English teacher usually use. AI offers new and innovative resources that might enrich and boost students’ language learning. In addition, the essay pinpoints the ways AI gives access to a variety of online resources, helps enhance students’ exposure to real-life situations and authentic material and language, and urges teachers to be trained for more effective classroom skills integration. Indeed, the paper is also focused on the use of AI-generated resources personalized to students’ learning needs, the flexibility it offers in different teaching settings, and its core importance in promoting ludic, interactive, and appealing classes. Additionally, AI provides continuous types of evaluations and gives teachers and students the feedback they need to improve language use, which aids to optimize motivation and willingness when using English, especially to focus on the four language skills. There are limitations and challenges to be faced, for example, teachers’ training, access to AI platforms, and other teaching considerations. Thus, AI demonstrates itself to be significant in language learning, and its potential makes the EFL teaching more attractive, personalized, and effective. Finally, the paper concludes that AI is an underlying tool nowadays, especially to improve the teachers’ English teaching praxis.
He Analysis of the Socioeconomic Factors Affecting Property Crimes in Costa Rica
The economy shows how various variables influence the incidence of crime in Costa Rica. Based on economic science, this article demonstrates how economic variables affect the behavior of agents who commit property crimes, taking the period between 1990 and 2019 as a study sample. Based on the microeconomic theory of rational choice, an econometric model is developed that integrates variables within the Costa Rican economy, such as social spending, per capita income, GDP, and the schooling rate. The results obtained show, for example, a significant correlation between an increase in social spending and a reduction in crime.
Decline of the Neo-Extractivist Model, Authoritarian Drift, and Socio-Environmental Crisis in Venezuela under the Bolivarian Revolution
This research analyzes how the crisis of the neo-extractivist model and the rise of authoritarianism during the Bolivarian Revolution have intensified the socio-environmental crisis in southern Venezuela, focusing on the Orinoco Mining Arc. Due to the economic crisis and the fall in oil prices, the Venezuelan government has promoted mining as an alternative, presented as a sovereign and sustainable solution. However, in practice, this activity has caused severe environmental damage, displaced Indigenous communities, and increased violence and corruption in the region. At the international level, mining expansion has fostered mineral smuggling and the involvement of transnational armed groups, which has further intensified violence and weakened state sovereignty. The study is based on a mixed-methods analysis, combining qualitative and quantitative data, and employing content and discourse analysis techniques. The results indicate that the deterioration of the neo-extractivist model and the strengthening of authoritarianism are mutually reinforcing, driving extractive expansion and consolidating the authoritarian regime in Venezuela. This has deepened the socio-environmental crisis and produced negative impacts on areas of high biodiversity, affecting both the environment and the human rights of local communities.
This research examines how the crisis of the neo-extractivism model and the rise of authoritarianism during the Bolivarian Revolution have intensified the socio-environmental crisis in southern Venezuela, focusing on the Orinoco Mining Arc. Due to the economic crisis and the drop in oil prices, the Venezuelan government has promoted mining as an alternative, presented as a sovereign and sustainable solution. However, in practice, this activity has caused severe environmental damage, displaced indigenous communities, and increased violence and corruption in the region. Internationally, mining expansion has encouraged mineral smuggling and the involvement of transnational armed groups, further intensifying violence and weakening state sovereignty. The research is based on a mixed analysis, using both qualitative and quantitative data, and employing content and discourse analysis techniques. The findings indicate that the deterioration of the neo-extractivism model and the strengthening of authoritarianism reinforce each other, driving extractivism expansion and consolidating the authoritarian regime in Venezuela. This has worsened the socio-environmental crisis and generated negative impacts in areas of high biodiversity, affecting both the environment and the human rights of local communities.
Los siguientes son ensayos suscritos a la revista por parte de dos prometedores estudiantes de la facultad de Ciencias Sociales. El tema de los ensayos, previamente definido para su revisión y selección, gira en torno a la geopolítica y su conexión unívoca con el territorio y las concepciones político-espaciales de este. Ofreciendo dos perspectivas frescas, los estudiantes Lukas Linner y Valentina Ciccio nos ofrecen su prosa.
Strategy for Implementing Education for Sustainable Development through the Biology Subject in Class 10-1 of Liceo de Belén de Carrillo 2022
This study investigated the implementation of Education for Sustainable Development within the Biology curriculum to foster meaningful learning and the development of life skills at the educational center of Belén de Carrillo, Guanacaste. The study focused on students in section 10-1 during the year 2022, recognizing the vital importance of sustainable development for human survival and its impact on overall quality of life. Education was identified as the primary means to achieve personal transformation through the teaching-learning process. The study established specific objectives, including the development of a methodological proposal, assessment of the learning environment, and examination of programs, projects, and activities related to sustainable development issues. Methodologically, data collection employed various techniques such as interviews with closed questions, surveys with questionnaires, and focus group discussions guided by closed questions. The triangulation method was applied in the analysis of gathered information. Findings revealed that the thematic contents of the Biology subject effectively promote learning about sustainable development and are well-received by students. The positive learning environment, along with the teacher's level of expertise, further enhances student engagement and comprehension. However, areas for improvement were identified across all categories, suggesting the need for teachers to design didactic plans incorporating techniques and methods that foster active and dynamic learning environments. Such an approach aims to empower students to construct knowledge within a pleasant atmosphere, ultimately contributing to their holistic development and societal contribution towards sustainable development.
Ambiente de aprendizaje, desarrollo sostenible, docente, educación, enseñanza, estrategia didáctica, recursos didácticos, métodos y técnicas didácticas.
Female Genital Mutilation from an African Perspective and a Human Rights-Based Le
Female genital mutilation is a cultural-traditional practice that affects millions of girls and women throughout the world, but especially those from the African continent. It is divided into two completely opposite positions, who fight for their vision to be understood and accepted: the cultural one and that of human rights. The cultural vision, especially that of African societies, fights so that its tradition does not fall victim to Western cultural imperialism; that of human rights, fight for human dignity and that the practice be eradicated, which violates multiple human rights. “Female Genital Mutilation from the African Perspective and the Human Rights Perspective” focuses on presenting both perspectives, under the premise of, can both parties put their differences aside and find a middle ground?
female genital mutilation, human rights, culture, reproductive rights, women, islam, west